Monday 24 December 2018

35 Crucial Genes Related To Chronic Kidney Disease Identified

35 Crucial Genes Related To Chronic Kidney Disease Identified

Written on 11/27/2018



35 Crucial Genes Related To Chronic Kidney Disease Identified
Knowing the makeup of chronic diseases is a substantial step toward creating diagnostics and treatment choices that are improved. The discovery is a significant advance in the understanding.35 kidney genes’ identification is an important step into the development of treatments and diagnostic tests .
As per Senior Research InvestigatorMaciej Tomaszewski, Ph.D., professor in the University of Manchester, Chronic Kidney Disease is known for its complex genetic component and the limited knowledge about its mechanics on gene level partially explains why there is no proper advancement in the developmental process of new diagnostic tests and treatments.
In the present study, the researchers analyzed 9958 gene expression profiles and 280 kidney transcriptomes which were obtained from 44 cells. From this, the group managed to discover gene expression partners (eGenes) for 88.9 percent of chronic kidney disease-defining traits loci. Dr. Tomaszewski stated that the outcome was a result of usage of high class next-generation RNA sequencing technology on human kidney collections they had. The scientists hope that the 35 genes discovered may be used as potential targets for the development of effective diagnostics and treatments in future.
Additionally, the group of researchers used version effect prediction and chromatin segmentation evaluation to annotate the consequences. “We identify a frequent alternative splice variant in MUC1 (a gene responsible for a rare Mendelian type of kidney disorder ) and observe increased renal expression of a particular MUC1 mRNA isoform as a plausible molecular mechanism of this GWAS association sign.””One of those genes–mucin-1–is particularly interesting,” commented study investigator Adrian Woolf, Ph.D., a professor at Manchester Children’s Hospital and The Universality of Manchester. “This makes a sticky protein called mucin that coats urinary tubes within the kidney. Mutations of this gene have been observed in rare families with inherited kidney failure.”
Co-study investigator Fadi Charchar, Ph.D., a professor at Federation University Australia added,”We expect that early forecast by genetic testing before the development of symptoms will in the long run be the first line of defense against one of the world’s leading killers.
Early detection followed by treatment using kidney-protective prevention or medication of drugs that can harm the kidneys is the key to healthy kidneys later in life.”Their findings encouraged the researchers, but stay cautious to draw any conclusions since there’s still substantial work that remains to be done in identifying diagnostic or therapeutic interventions which could be derived from this information.Because it’s typical for it to have symptoms before the results of the disease have taken hold, we refer to CKD as a silent killer. The findings of the research are hugely important as they bring us a step closer to being able to comprehend, diagnose earlier, and protect against kidney disease,” concluded Elaine Davies, director of research operations at Kidney Research UK, who wasn’t directly involved with the analysis.

World’s Largest Gene Sequencing Project Completed By UK Researchers

World’s Largest Gene Sequencing Project Completed By UK Researchers

Written on 12/11/2018

World’s Largest Gene Sequencing Project Completed By UK Researchers
In a remarkable achievement, Genomics England Researchers in partnership with NHS England have successfully completed sequencing 100,000 Human Genomes. This is the World’s Largest Gene Sequencing Project in healthcare ever executed and has open new doors for a better understanding of rare & genetic diseases for which we do not have a cure yet.
Earlier in 2012, Ex-Prime Minister David Cameron announced the launch of the 100,000

Photo Courtesy: Genomics England – NHS

Genomes Project, with a target to make the UK, world leader in research in 5 years of time from then. On Wednesday the project was announced to have been successfully completed and are aiming for more million to go.
In this historic project that nobody had ever tried before, witnessed the participation of numerous families & patients with rare genetic disorders and Cancer. Via this project, thousands of families received an effective diagnosis for the first time. Potential findings in up to half of the cancer patients were tabulated, leading to an opportunity for a clinical trial or a targeted therapy.
This humongous initiative was accomplished by Genomics England & NHS England by creating 13 NHS Genomic Medicine Centres to run the project. Illumina further assisted by providing a state-of-the-art sequencing center to run the genome sequencing.
Jessica is one of the first children to receive a diagnosis from the 100,000 Genomes Project. Watch her family share their story below on how the treatment helped them change their world.
Precisely 85,000 participants, 1,500 NHS staff and over 3,000 researchers were a part of the project, Genomics Englandand NHS have expressed their extreme gratefulness to them. Also, the National Institute for Health Research and the UK Government played a very important role in the successful execution of this project.
In the initial stages of the project, the team had to face a lot of hurdles. The absence of technology to deliver genomic medicine, lack of effective bioinformatics pipeline to ensure processing at a large scale all were adding to the trouble to kick-start the project. In short, the entire infrastructure was set up from scratch.
The UK has now become the first nation in the world, to use whole-genome sequencing at a large scale in direct healthcare. As an outcome of the project, NHS Genomic Medicine Service has been established which will provide access to genomic testing to patients across NHS from 2019. Well, they are not going to end here. In oct, 2018 the U.K. Govt announced new plans of sequencing 1 million genomes over the next five years.

Nationwide Protests For Hike in Fellowship By Research Scholars

Nationwide Protests For Hike in Fellowship By Research Scholars

Written on 11/08/2018
Shekhar

Nationwide Protests For Hike in Fellowship By Research Scholars
IISER Pune & National Chemical Laboratory NCL Pune Research scholars have joined forces with other scholars from leading institutes demanding a hike in fellowship. Lately Research Scholar community has been uniting on a large scale agitating against the Government in demand of a hike in the monthly fellowship. Recently, In Delhi, a large fleet of almost 1000 PhD scholars demonstrated together fighting for their rights to a hike in pay.
After a series of such events, silent strikes and demonstrations by the PhD scholars the Government has finally chosen to speak up. In response to a petition letter sent to the department of science & Technology (DST), Govt of India on 30th October 2018, Krishnaswamy VijayRaghavan, principal scientific advisor announced via a tweet that the demands and concerns of the research scholars are being considered seriously by the government.
As per Hindustan Times reporting Sachin Kumar Singh, a PhD student from IISER Pune said, “After we sent out the letter to the DST post the protest, we received a positive response to hold a meeting on November 6. We are hopeful that this meeting will reap positive results in favor of the scholars. Also, Shekhar Mande, the director general of CSIR, showed his support to our cause via social media. We hope the matter to reach a substantial point after Diwali.”
If we analyze the statistics of past increments in fellowship:
  • Year 1999 – Rs 5000
  • Year 2006 – Rs. 8000-10000 (60% Increase)
  • Year 2007 – Rs. 12000-14000 (a 50% increase)
  • Year 2010 – Rs. 16000-18000 (33% increase)
  • Year 2014 – Rs. 25000-28000 (56% increase)
  • Year 2018 – Rs 56,000 – 60,000 (100% increase) Should be given ??
As per the above stats  there is a gradual increase in the fellowship every 3-4 years. But since then there has been no announcement yet on the increase in fellowship which is the major cause of this agitation across India.
The meeting of the cabinet was supposed to be held on 6th November 2018. No recent updates have been released yet from the ministry over the issue. The questions which lingers around right now is :
  1. Will the Govt increase the fellowship amount ?
  2. If yes then by what amount?
  3. When the fellowship hike announcement will be made?
  4. How soon it will be implemented?
  5. How will the Govt categorize the hikes ? Will it be applicable only for JRF’s? Only For SRF’s? Or Both ?
Please share your views below in the comment section. What do you feel the hike amount should be? If you have any other suggestions which might help the Govt take favourable decisions do share then below.

Wednesday 19 December 2018

Anxiety disorders with depression

Anxiety disorders are a set of related mental conditions that include: generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), social phobia, and simple phobias. Anxiety disorders are treated by a combination of psychiatric medications and psychotherapy.
Anxiety, worry, and stress are all a part of most people’s everyday lives. But simply experiencing anxiety or stress in and of itself does not mean you need to get professional help or that you have an anxiety disorder. In fact, anxiety is an important and sometimes necessary warning signal of a dangerous or difficult situation. Without anxiety, we would have no way of anticipating difficulties ahead and preparing for them.
Anxiety becomes a disorder when the symptoms become chronic and interfere with our daily lives and ability to function. People suffering from chronic, generalized anxiety often report the following symptoms:
  • Muscle tension
  • Physical weakness
  • Poor memory
  • Sweaty hands
  • Fear or confusion
  • Inability to relax
  • Constant worry
  • Shortness of breath
  • Palpitations
  • Upset stomach
  • Poor concentration
When these symptoms are severe and upsetting enough to make individuals feel extremely uncomfortable, out of control, or helpless, it’s usually a sign of an anxiety disorder.
Anxiety disorders fall into a set of distinct diagnoses, depending upon the symptoms and severity of the anxiety the person experiences. Anxiety disorders share the anticipation of a future threat, but differ in the types of situations or objects that induce fear or avoidance behavior. Different types of anxiety disorder also have different types of unhealthy thoughts associated with them.
Anxiety disorders are the most commonly diagnosed mental disorders in the United States. The most common type of anxiety disorder are called “simple phobias,” which includes phobias of things like snakes or being in a high place. Up to 9 percent of the population could be diagnosed with this disorder in any given year. Also common are social anxiety disorder (social phobia, about 7 percent) — being fearful and avoiding social situations — and generalized anxiety disorder (about 3 percent).
Anxiety disorders are readily treated through a combination of psychotherapy and anti-anxiety medications. Many people who take medications for anxiety disorders can take them on an as-needed basis, for the specific situation causing the anxiety reaction.

Anxiety Symptoms

Most people have experienced fleeting symptoms associated with anxiety disorders at some point in their life. Such feelings — such as having a shortness of breath, feeling your heart pounding for no apparent reason, experiencing dizziness or tunnel vision — usually pass as quickly as they come and don’t readily return. But when they do return time and time again, that can be a sign that the fleeting feelings of anxiety have turned into an anxiety disorder.
The primary types of anxiety disorders include:

Causes & Diagnosis

Anxiety can be caused by numerous factors, ranging from external stimuli, emotional abandonment, shame, to experiencing an extreme reaction when first exposed to something potentially anxiety-provoking. Research has not yet explained why some people will experience a panic attack or develop a phobia, while others growing up in the same family and shared experiences do not. It is likely that anxiety disorders, like all mental illness, is caused by a complex combination of factors not yet fully understood. These factors likely include childhood development, genetics, neurobiology, psychological factors, personality development, and social and environmental cues.
Like most mental disorders, anxiety disorders are best diagnosed by a mental health professional — a specialist who is trained on the nuances of mental disorder diagnoses (such as a psychologist or psychiatrist).

Anxiety Treatment

Treatment of anxiety focuses on a two-pronged approach for most people, that focuses on using psychotherapy combined with occasional use of anti-anxiety medications on an as-needed basis. Most types of anxiety can be successfully treated with psychotherapy alone — cognitive-behavioral and behavioral techniques have been shown to be very effective. Anti-anxiety medications tend to be fast-acting and have a short-life, meaning they leave a person’s system fairly quickly (compared to other psychiatric medications, which can take weeks or even months to completely leave).
The most effective type of treatment generally depends on the specific type of anxiety disorder diagnosed. The following articles cover treatment options available:

Living With & Managing Anxiety

What’s it like to live with an anxiety disorder on a daily basis? Is it always overwhelming, or are there specific strategies that can be used to make it easier to get through the day and manage anxiety successfully? Anxiety disorders are so common that we might take for granted that a person can live their lives and still suffer from occasional bouts of anxiety (or anxiety-provoking situations). These articles explore the challenges of living with and managing this condition.

Getting Help

Peer support for anxiety disorders is often a useful and helpful component of treatment. We offer a number of resources that can help you feel that you’re not alone in battling this condition.
Although obsessive-compulsive disorder(OCD) and posttraumatic stress disorder(PTSD) are sometimes considered anxiety disorders, they are covered elsewhere independently on Psych Central.

Friday 16 November 2018

IVF in vitro fertilisation in human

In vitro fertilisation (IVF

In vitro fertilisation is a process of fertilisation where an egg is combined with sperm outside the body, in vitro ("in glass"). The process involves monitoring and stimulating a woman's ovulatory process, removing an ovum or ova (egg or eggs) from the woman's ovaries and letting sperm fertilise them in a liquid in a laboratory. The fertilised egg (zygote) undergoes embryo culture for 2–6 days, and is then transferred to the same or another woman's uterus, with the intention of establishing a successful pregnancy.

IVF is a type of assisted reproductive technology used for infertility treatment and gestational surrogacy, in which a fertilised egg is implanted into a surrogate's uterus, and the resulting child is genetically unrelated to the surrogate. Some countries banned or otherwise regulate the availability of IVF treatment, giving rise to fertility tourism. Restrictions on availability of IVF include costs and age to carry a healthy pregnancy to term. IVF is mostly attempted if less invasive or expensive options have failed or are unlikely to work.

The first successful birth of a child after IVF treatment, Louise Brown, occurred in 1978. Louise Brown was born as a result of natural cycle IVF where no stimulation was made. The procedure took place at Dr Kershaw's Cottage Hospital (now Dr Kershaw's Hospice) in Royton, Oldham, England. Robert G. Edwards was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2010, the physiologist who co-developed the treatment together with Patrick Steptoe and embryologist Jean Purdy; Steptoe and Purdy were not eligible for consideration as the Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously.

Thursday 15 November 2018

CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY METABOLITES: HOW PLANTS AND HUMANS USE THEM

produce a variety of compounds that can be divided into primary metabolites and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolites are essential for the survival of the plant and include sugars, proteins and amino acids.
Secondary metabolites were once believed to be waste products. They are not essential to the plant’s survival, but the plant does suffer without them. Secondary metabolites also have many uses for us, too. Some are beneficial, and others can be toxic.

ALKALOIDS

Alkaloids are secondary metabolites. They are primarily composed of nitrogen and are widely used in medicine. They can also be highly toxic.

Papaver somniferum
Morphine was the first alkaloid to be found. Morphine comes from the plant Papaver sonniferum, or the opium poppy. It is used as a pain reliever in patients with severe pain levels and cough suppressant.
Another example of an alkaloid is cocaine. It can be highly dangerous and addictive. However, it has also been used as an anesthetic. Cocaine has long been used by the people of South America to alleviate hunger. Workers chew on the leaves while working, which is not dangerous because the leaves only contain a small amount of cocaine. However, cocaine derivatives are very dangerous when habitually used and can be deadly.
Perhaps the most loved and known alkaloid is caffeine. While we use it to stay alert, it has protective properties for the plants it comes from: cocoa, coffee and tea.

Coffee Beans
Seedlings of the coffee plant have a high concentration of caffeine. The high concentration is toxic and protects the seedlings from insects that want to snack on it.
Toxic caffeine levels also have another interesting defense mechanism. It prevents the germination of any other plants in the area. This is referred to as allelopathy. In humans, caffeine has also been thought to reduce the risk of diabetes and heart disease in addition to helping us face long days of work and school.

TERPENOIDS

Terpenoids are made of isoprene units and are found in all plants. They are the largest group of secondary metabolites and are very volatile, which means they evaporate easily.
Isoprene is a gas produced in the chloroplasts and released by the leaves. Isoprene is thought to protect the plant from heat.
Essential oils give plants their fragrance. In some plants, the scent is used to deter herbivores and protect the plant from dangerous pathogens. We use essential oils for aromatherapy and medicine. In aromatherapy, essential oils are thought to improve the mood and mental functioning. In alternative medicine, essential oils are thought to have quite a few benefits.
Most of the time, essential oils are dangerous if consumed so they are usually applied topically or inhaled. They can be used for skin issues, respiratory ailments and as antiseptics.

European Yew Branch with Red Fruits
Next is taxol, which has become important in the medical field. It is used to treat ovarian and breast cancer. Taxol comes from the bark of the Pacific yew tree. The bark produced very small amounts of taxol and the process killed the tree. Other sources needed to be found.
Now, other sources of taxol include a fungusthat grows on the tree and needles of the European yew.
The final type of terpenoid is the one that is the most familiar to us: rubber. It is the largest of the terpenoids because it contains over 400 isoprene units. Rubber is obtained from latex, which is a fluid produced by Hevea brasilenis. The uses for rubber are numerous and go back hundreds of years. Today, we use rubber in shoes, erasers, tires, gloves, spandex and the beloved rubber ducky.

PHENOLS

The final type of secondary metabolites has recently become very popular due to their health benefits: the phenols.
The phenols consist of a hydroxyl group (–OH) attached to an aromatic ring. Phenols are found in nearly all parts of the plant and in nearly every plant on the planet.
The first group of phenols is the flavonoids. Flavonoids are water-soluble pigments found in the vacuoles of plant cells. Flavonoids can be further divided into three groups: anthocyanins, flavones and flavnols.
Anthocyanins range in color from red to blue and purple. The color depends on the pH of the environment. Anthocyanins are most commonly found in grapes, berries and have a wide range of health benefits. Anthocyanins are believed to protect against heart disease, diabetes and even cancer when they are consumed. They are also appearing in skincare products to slow down the aging process.
The next two groups have white or yellow pigments. They are called flavones and flavnols. As a group, the phenols attract pollinators to the plants and even impact how plants act with one another.

Aspirin Tablets
Yet another medically relative phenol is salicylic acid, which is the active ingredient in aspirin. It comes from the bark of the willow tree. It has been used to effectively treat aches and fevers since the days of Hippocrates. It also has cosmetic uses.
It is used in numerous skincare products to treat acne, large pores and dermatitis.The final type of phenol is important to the structure of the plant and is called lignin. It adds stiffness and strength to cell walls of the plant cells. Lignin is crucial to terrestrial plants because it supports the branches and size. It also allows the cell wall to be waterproof and protects the plant from fungal attacks.
Not only do the secondary metabolites have functions for the plants, they have proven to be pretty beneficial for us, too. Their effects have not only been cultivated in recent years, but for centuries. Be sure to eat your berries for their great health benefits, and remember where the active ingredient in that aspirin you took came from.

FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE KNEE: MOVEMENT AND STABILITY

The knee is a joint formed, stabilized and given mobility by the articulation of bones, ligaments and tendons. This joint is the largest joint in the body and is formed by the articulation of the femur bone in the thigh with the tibia in the lower leg.
There are 3 main types of joints: Fibrous – an immovable jointCartilagenous – partially moveable, and Synovial – a freely moveable joint. The knee joint is classified as a synovial joint for obvious reasons based on the definitions given.
Synovial joints or diarthroses are considered moveable joints. According to the Encyclopedia of Nursing and Allied Health, joint function, synovial joints can be further divided into 3 types, these are: Uniaxial – joints that hinge or pivot moving only in one plane, Biaxial – such as the saddle and condyloid joints. These joints move in two planes. And lastly, the Triaxial – which allows movement in three planes including the ball and socket joints and gliding joints
The knee falls under the uniaxial as it is a hinge joint and it moves in one plane with slight rotational movement, but the rotation is not enough to be considered significant.

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

The knee is the largest joint of the body and is often the site of pain and injury in athletes (the reason I am writing about this is that I strained my medial collateral ligament, more on that later), consists of the medial and lateral condyles (round projection at the end of the bone) of the lower femur (thigh bone) and the same condyles at the upper end of the tibia.
The patella (knee cap) covers the front of the joint, it is the protruding structure you see when you extend your knee. This structure slides along a groove on the femur.
 
Each of the 3 bones in the knee joint are covered with articular cartilage, which is a tough elastic material, that acts as shock absorbers and allows the knee joint to move with ease. Another cartilage tissue called the menisci separates the femur and tibia, divided into two crescent shaped discs located medially and laterally (inner and outer respectively). This cartilage also acts as shock absorbers, as well as enhancing stability.
In a normal knee joint, a synovium (synovial membrane) surrounds the knee jointand it produces synovial fluid that nourishes the surrounding cartilage in the knee. The synovium also functions in protecting and supporting the joint due to its tough outer layer.

STABILITY

The stability of the knee is due mainly to four ligaments. A ligament is several large fibrous bands of tissue, comparable to that of a rope, they support the knee on both sides and front to back. Ligaments connect bone to bone.
The ligaments that connect the femur to the tibia and fibula are as follows:
  • Medial Collateral Ligament (MCL), also known as the Tibial Collateral Ligamentbecause it connects the Femur and Tibia, provides stability to the inner (medial) aspect of the knee.
  • Lateral Collateral Ligament (LCL), also known as the Fibular Collateral Ligamentbecause it connects the Femur and Fibula, provides stability to the outer (lateral) aspect of the knee
  • Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL), in the center of the knee, limits rotation and forward movement of the Tibia
  • Posterior Cruciate Ligament (PCL), also in the center of the knee, and like the ACL secondarily limits rotation, while primarily limits backward movement of the Tibia.

MOVEMENT

Your knee is a hinge joint like your elbow, which we discussed already, which means it bends and straightens. We also said that it has the ability to slightly rotate as it moves.
The muscles in the thigh, the quadriceps and hamstrings perform movement of the knee joint, but these muscles need assistance from tendons to connect them to the muscles. Tendons are tough cords of tissue that connect muscle to bone. They are similar to ligaments in structure. The difference is in just what they articulate with.
When you straighten your leg, the quadriceps muscles contract pulling on the quadriceps tendon, which in turn pulls on the patella via the patellar tendon causing an extension of the knee. Please note the patellar tendon connects the patella to the tibia, so technically it is a ligament, but commonly called a tendon. On the posterior side of the knee the hamstring group of muscles contract pulling on the tendons associated with the hamstring, pulling on the femur, which causes the flexion of the knee.

LYMPHOPOIESIS: THE DEVELOPMENT OF LYMPHOCYTES

Lymphopoiesis: The Development of Lymphocytes

Fig.1 Lymphocyte
Lymphocytes are the smallest and the second most common type of white blood cell. They are known as the cells of immunityLymphocytes have large round/oval nuclei that occupies most of the cell with little cytoplasm. The nucleus will stain dark purple or blue when it is exposed to a certain stain called Wright’s stain (please see figure 1 ).
Lymphocytes function to provide a specific response to invading organisms.
There are two types of lymphocytes T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes which the immune response depends upon. They are derived from the hematopoietic stem cell(HSC).

 LYMPHOPOIESIS

The development of lymphocytes begins as the earliest branch from HSC.
As we already know, HSC can develop into common lymphoid progenitor (CLP) or common myeloid progenitor (CMP). CLP then will generate T and B lymphocytes while CMP generates myeloid elements. So, lymphocytes originate from CLP in the bone marrow.
One should note that during postnatal life, the bone marrow and thymus are the primary lymphoid organs. The secondary lymphoid organin which specific immune response take place are the lymph nodes, spleen and lymphoid tissue.

 B-LYMPHOCYTE DEVELOPMENT

B-celloriginate in the bone marrow and circulate the peripheral blood until they recognize an antigen. There are various stages in the development of B lymphocytes:
  1. Stem Cell (HSC)
  2. CLP
  3. Pro-B cell
  4. Pre-B cell
  5. Immature B cell
  6. Mature B cell
Their development is altered by cytokines. Interleukin-7 interacts with stem cellfactor to begin the process. In order for the cells to function, they will express on their surface immunoglobulin (Ig).
Ig production begins at the Pro-B cell stage of B cell development.  Ig is needed for the development and maturation of the B cell from CLP to pre-B cell.
First there will be an expression of IgM, then IgD and finally IgG or IgA.  The termination of B cell will take place in the peripheral lymph organs such as the spleen and lymph nodes.  In these organs B cells change into plasma cells and memory cells.
The plasma cells are capable of producing and releasing antibodies, while the memory cells remember antigens that they were once exposed to in the past.

T-LYMPHOCYTE DEVELOPMENT

T- Lymphocyte development begins with CLP cells that migrate to the thymus where they will differentiate into mature T cells. It is associated with the movement of the cells through the cortex and medulla of the thymus. Maturing begins in the cortex, and as the cells develop more they move towards the medulla.
During the developmental stages of T cells, the cells contain specific surface proteins. As the cell progresses through maturity, they are identified by antibodies that recognize the surface proteins. In other words, there are cell surface markers which are used by antibodies to identify the T cell.
cell eventually differentiates into two types of T lymphocytes: cytotoxic T-cell and helper T-cellCytotoxic T-cell is important because they produce a substance called lymphokines which help B cells destroy foreign substances. Cytotoxic T-cells also have CD8 antigen.
Helper T-cell on the other hand produces CD4 antigen and functions to assists killer T cells with the protection of the body against invading organisms.
Like B-cells, T-cells depend on interleukin-7 and other interleukins. One should note that most of T-cell development occurs in the thymus; however the final steps in which cytotoxic and helper T-cell are produced occur in the peripheral blood.

INTRODUCTION TO THE SPINOTHALAMIC TRACT


Introduction To The Spinothalamic Tract

I think it’s time to make a jump, and to look at the nervous networked that feeds the brain information about what’s going on with the body. There are two types of information relays.
There are pathways that transmit information that goes from the brain to the limbs (called descending tracks), and there are pathways that transmit the information from the limbs to the brain (called the ascending tracks).
But how do you know which track does what?
Ascending and Descending tracts. Image Credit: Mikael Häggström

LET’S BEGIN WITH THE SPINOTHALAMIC TRACT

First, look at the terminology: Spinothalamic. This gives you a hint as to the direction of the electrical signal. Spino-Thalamic. The information will travel from the spine up to the thalamus (which is situated in the brain). So yes, the spinothalamic tract is an ascending pathway.
At this point you already know that this pathway will have something to do with information about the body.
The spinothalamic tract is involved with perceptions of temperature, itch, touch, and pain.
We also said that the information is being relayed. The term relay applies really well to this situation because the electrical signal will be “relayed” from neuron to neuronas it ascends up to the thalamus.
Like most ascending pathways, there are 3 neuronal levels in the spinothalamic tract.

SPINOTHALAMIC TRACT – LEVEL 1

The level 1 neurons are called “primary neurons.” These primary neurons have free nerve endings that will translate pain, temperature, itch, or touch sensations into an electrical signal. These primary neurons can be pretty long and travel all the way from the bottom of the foot to the spinal cord.
The cell bodies of these  primary neurons are located in dorsal root ganglions.Their axons enter the spinal cord through Lissauer’s fascicles, then go up one segment before synapsing. They will synapse in the posterior horn on the same side (ipsilateral side).

 SPINOTHALAMIC TRACT – LEVEL 2

The secondary neurons begin in the posterior horn of the spinal cord (The primary neurons that we just talked about synapse on them).
At this point, there are two options for these neurons.
  1. They can travel up on the same side (ipsilateral ascension)
  2. Decussate and travel up on the opposite side (contralateral ascension). Most axons will mostly travel up on the contralateral side, but all will synapse in the thalamus (ipsilaterally or contralaterally).
The Contralateral Ascension
Decussation: the level 2 neurons send their axons across the midline before going up through the lateral spinothalamic tract. They will then   synapse on the ventral post lateral nucleus of the thalamus.
It is interesting to note that axons from the lower limbs align themselves on the “lateral side” of the spinothalamic tract, whereas axons from the upper limbs align themselves more on the “central” side of the spinothalamic tract.
Along the way, some of these neuronbranch out  to the periaqueductal gray or to the reticular formation.
That’s pretty cool because pain can be down regulated at these levels. Which means that even if the body sends out a strong pain signal, the brain can actually modulate how much of that pain it will feel…..
Spinothalamic Tract – Level 3
The last level! The tertiary neurons begin in the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus. Their axons will travel through the internal capsule. They will keep on going through the corona radiate (I love that name). Their journey will end  on the secondary sensory cortex.

REMEMBER THIS:

  • The Lateral Spinothalamic tract take pain and temperature info from the body to the brain (ascending).
  • This relay system involves 3 neuronal levels.

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